An Analysis Of Coste Coffees Marketing Marketing Essay

An Analysis Of Coste deep browns selling Marketing Essay2. Analyse the Company cases Marketing and then reflect on how it compargons to the merc pass byising of one of the Companys Competitors (50% marks)In the first part of the essay, I am going to use market sectionalisation, designateing and positioning to analyse costa burnt umbers merchandise. In the light of the global recession in 2008, the competition within the drinking chocolate industry has become fiercer than before, rib Coffee financial reports looking ated very hopeful with rising growth whilst Starbucks experienced hard times. (Caf Business 2009) Different marketing outline of the two companies would be reflected later in this essay.Segmentationdemographic segmentation divides markets into segments by population characteristics. Three main demographic factors that costa Coffee used are age group, social class, and professional take aim. By dividing the potential customers into age groups, rib Coffee git a djust the disembodied spirit and choices of coffee accordingly. For instance, teenagers index prefer hot chocolate rather than espresso, as they normally have a preference of sweet-tasting beverages. On the other hand, adults might prefer drinks with much caffeine since caffeine acts as stimulant and keeps them sprightly at work. (Ferrell Hartline 2008, pp.172-173)From social variables, costa Coffee slew know much nigh what products customers are looking for. This is repayable to the fact that they suggest the customers level of income which in turn affects their ability to buy. For example, the privileged class would spend more than on coffee than the middle class each month. In this way, rib Coffee can adjust the prices accordingly (Dibb, Simkin, Pride Ferrell 2006, pp. 229-232)Behavioural segmentation is by far the most important type of consumer segmentation due to the fact that it is more closely related to consumer need. (Ferrell Hartline 2008, p.172) Costa Coffee can segment the market based on peoples different coffee preferences. check to the Costa Coffees marketing director, Jim Slater, he found out that there are people who find latte too weak and cappuccinos too frothy, and do not want the beefed-up flavour of an espresso or black Americano. (Reynolds 2010, p.2) Furthermore, Costa Coffee has identified what made the customers buy the coffee, some might look for a place to relax and others might want to grab and go. In this way, Costa Coffee can try to satisfy the customers needs (e.g. by improving the interior design of the shop) (Whitbread 2010, p.14)TargetingOnce identified the segments, the firm can starts the targeting process. Costa Coffee caters for all the segments and does not use the concentrated strategy (i.e. concentrating on just one segment) as it is too risky. It uses differentiated strategy, development different market mix for different segments. (Bradley 2005, pp. 30, 208)Launching Flat lily-white in January 2010 w as no doubt a way for Costa Coffee to target their customers who are looking for coffee other than latte and espresso. In just one month, flat white has already accounted for 7.5% of the sales. (Reynolds 2010, p.2)When dividing its market into segments, Costa Coffee believes that targeting the upper classes would be most profitable. The brand name symbolises curvaceous and excellence, thus these classes are willing to pay more for a shape of coffee. (Whitbread 2010, p.15)PositioningIn terms of positioning, Costa Coffee launched its first TV advertising campaign in order to position the product in customers minds and give them an image of the company. The advert was about monkeys playing with the coffee machines and attempting to induce the perfect coffee. (Reynolds 2010, p.3) The advert ended with a Costa barista try to hand make a perfect cup of coffee, showing that it can hardly be created by barista who are highly skilled and passionate about coffee. The message hobo the TV advertisement was to prove the supremacy of Costa Coffees products. According to Reynolds (2010), Costa Coffee is going to express the idea that it is trying to save everyone from the normal coffee into the TV advert.ReflectUnlike Costa Coffee, what Starbucks trying to sell is not only coffee, but also the Starbucks experience. Starbucks believes creating a cosy, relaxing atmosphere would be a key driver of success. To galore(postnominal) customers, coffee is a treat after a stressful day. It targets peculiarly at young adults, who look for places to unwind. (Michelli 2007, pp.49-51) According to the Mintel report on coffee in February 2010, the 16-34 year old age group are more likely to make their own coffee at home (Mintel foreign Group Limited, 2010). Starbucks coffee has successfully launched an online store, so that the customers would be able to get coffee beans online. (Gia 2009, pp.10-11)Both Costa Coffee and Starbucks monitor their coffee tonus standard carefully des pite Starbucks main focus is on the Starbucks experience. Starbucks do that by researching constantly and developing new technologies in order to ameliorate the roasting processes and thus the quality of coffee. (Michelli 2007, pp 58-64) Costa Coffee adopted a similar strategy and also widened the range of product sold. Moreover, both of the companies target their customers in a similar way. They both launch coffee rescript cards, which enable them to track their customers consumption pattern and thus improve their strategy on targeting their customers. However, after recession, it is evident that Costa Coffee did well than Starbucks. approximately experts believe that Starbucks decision to align with McDonalds was the one to be blamed. The reason behind is that McDonalds offer low quality coffee which in turns adversely bear upon the Starbucks experience that Starbucks has been trying to established. (Caf Business, 2009)To sum up,Reflect means digest, mull over, appreciate alo ud about the key marketingfeatures of the company case with the marketing of a key competitor. E.g.with MS we could have compared it with Next, or george at Asda .You could drop your reflection by asking questions or perhaps review howstrong relatively the 2 companies brands are, for example.http//books.google.com.hk/books?id=beBNXXZbEEoCpg=PA170dq=starbucks,+segmentationhl=enei=JjokTaXpFIemcMeW-H8sa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=2ved=0CCsQ6AEwAQv=onepageq=starbucks%2C%20segmentationf=falsehttp//books.google.com.hk/books?id=QDaax4mFMpcCpg=PA28dq=starbucks,+segmentationhl=enei=JjokTaXpFIemcMeW-H8sa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=1ved=0CCYQ6AEwAAv=onepageq=starbucks%2C%20segmentationf=falsehttp//www.independent.co.uk/ news show/uk/this-britain/coffee-chains-turnover-set-to-double-582227.htmlhttp//www.google.com.hk/search?tbs=bks%3A1tbo=1hl=enq=starbucks+segmentationhttp//www.economicshelp.org/blog/economics/is-the-price-of-a-starbucks-a-rip-off/

Drug Discovery And Development

medicate Discovery And Developwork forcetA dose is created through lots of stages. This analyze provides the description of the basic concepts of dose find and teaching, and identifies the single-valued function of whatever healthful chemistry, such(prenominal) as pharmacological medicine and pharmacokinetics. at that place atomic number 18 lots of processes of creating stark naked-madefangled doses, where we may chiefly distinguish between drug discovery and drug development. Drug discovery comes about in several polar ways. The order is to subject raw chemical substance entities to a set of screening tests knowing to detect different types of biological activity. These include in Vitro screens as wellspring as in Vivo screens. The history of drug discovery has changed gradually. Before 1990, medicines were produced by chemical synthesis or were isolated from existing compounds exhibiting poly-pharmacology or office effects, such as plants and herbs. Also, scr eenings were carried out through low throughput screening. More recently, the discretion of humane receptors and substances which run specific activity has proceeded, so this led to modernistic drugs, such Cimetizine and Ranitizine. The studies of DMPK and ADME have progressed as well, so the studies were applied to drug discovery. In addition to that, the change from low throughput screening to high throughput screening allowed sens screening. Since 2000, the incredible advance of attending of the human genome has led to novel medicines, such as Aranesp, Epogen, and Enbral, which ar more biological than before. Toxicology developed and has been adapted to drug discovery as well. At the selfsame(prenominal) time, attempts with utilise computers be increasing. As I mentioned above, the method of scrapeing lead compounds has changed. Nowadays, of import six methods to find lead compounds atomic number 18 becoming normal. Firstly, it is to improve existing drugs. Secondl y, it is to create new drugs on the understructure of natural products. Also, rational drug design using protein crystallography is becoming popular. The rest is high throughput screening, fragment screening, and virtual screening. In addition, thither be the main dickens methods of designing structures, which are structure base design and ligand base design respectively. Targets of finding new lead compounds are mainly eight levels, which are receptors, enzymes, ion- take, nuclear receptors, kinases, bacterial/viral maneuvers, human genome, and differents. The process of drug discovery is complex, so it takes 4 to 8 eld to finish it. In the process of drug discovery, the small structural changes of chemicals sometimes cause large changes and effects. For instance, propranol shows both 1 and2 adrenoceptor selectivity. On the sepa tramp hand, atenolol shows only 1 adrenoceptor selectivity. The structural variations between propranolol and atenolol are small, but their sh owing effects are different respectively.Once a new chemical compound has been discovered, drug development has to be carried out, culminating in its being licensed for use and marked. Preclinical tests on isolated tissues and in animals should ensure that the drug has the required mechanism of achieve and at least(prenominal) in animals will produce appropriate system responses. At this stage, the new drug will be tested against standard drugs in relative assays. Toxicity tests in animals should in most cases allow some prescience of toxic effects in humans. In comparisons of drugs used clinically, potency does non necessarily relate directly to therapeutic usefulness. It is measurable to consider alike the upper limit achievable response and the incidence of unwanted effects. Clinical examination in humans involves four phases. Phase 1 is the measurement of pharmacological activity, pharmacokinetics and side effects in healthy volunteers. Phase 2 is buffer studies in small groups of patients to confirm that the drug works on the design condition and to establish the pane regimen to be used in phase 3. Phase 3 is formal clinical trials in a large number of patients to determine the incidence of unwanted effects. Phase 4 is post marketing surveillance to establish efficacy and toxicity in general use. The detection of rare, adverse effects is most likely to pass off in this phase. It takes 5 to 8 old age to finish this stage, and costs oft money than drug discovery stage.It takes about 10 to 12 years from an idea to marketable drugs totally. Also, it takes approximately 800 million dollars to develop one new drug.The duration of a drugs patent from the time of its registration with the UK Patent authority is 20 years. Therefore, pharmaceutical industries have to recoup their investment and form a profit, some of which will spend researching and developing other drugs. After a drugs patent expired, other pharmaceutical companies push aside make and sell the sooner similar drug which is called a generic drug. As a result, the price often drops significantly. As a generic drug has become popular among people due to the price and the efficacy, generic drugs market is growing speedyly.The description of medicinal chemistryMedicinal chemistry is a chemistry based on discipline which is involved in aspects of biological, medical and pharmaceutical science. Also, it is touch with the invention, discovery, design, identification and preparation of biologically active compounds. The chemistry is a field of battle of their metabolism, mode of challenge at a molecular level, and relationships between chemical structure and activity.The role of pharmacokinetics in drug discovery and drug developmentPharmacokinetics is the science of exploring the changes in drug intentnesss end-to-end the corpse with time. It is definitive to understand the time course of drug effects. The time course of drug fulfill usually follows that of the concentration at the target rank. There are 4 main phases in the pharmacokinetic process, which are absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Drugs can be administered through the intestine or by other route, which is called absorption. Most drugs dont spread rapidly throughout the whole of body water. A drugs penetration into these compartments is indicated by its volume of distribution that would be required to hold the amount of drug in the body at the measured blood plasma concentration. The plasma membrane of the cellular phones constitutes a aquaphobic lipide barrier and drug permeation can occur by direct distribution through the lipid and carrier mediated transport. dissemination of a drug depends on its concentration gradient and its diffusion coefficient. The concentration gradient established within the cell membrane depends on the drugs lipid/water partition coefficient. This is estimated by the drugs distribution between water and a simple organic solvent. Most drugs are ionised in aqueous solution. The ionised form is hydrophilic, so the ionisation impedes passive membrane permeation. When a drug enters the body, it is subjected to the processes that have been developed for dealing with toxic foreign molecules, which are called metabolism and excretion. The liver is the main site of drug metabolism, and the kidney is the main site of excretion.There are some important terms in pharmacokinetics, which are half-life, AUC, and drug clearance. Half-life is the time taken for any given plasma concentration to decrease by 50%. AUC is a measure of the effect of absorption. Drug clearance is defined as the volume of plasma clear(p) of drug per unit time.Drug metabolism in drug discoveryThe main purpose of drug metabolism is to cause detoxification. Metabolism involves two main processes. Firstly, the molecule is made more hydrophilic to garnish the surmisal of reabsorption in the renal tubules. Secondly, it is conjugated to red uce its effects and maintenance excretion. As I mentioned above, there are two phases of metabolism. Phase is mainly oxidative replys, such as oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis. The oxidation of a drug requires the cytochrome P450 which is the major enzyme. Phase is conjugation reactions with sugar residue, such as glucuronidation, glycosidation, and sulfation. UDPGT is the main enzyme at this stage. Interestingly, there are species differences in metabolism. For example, lidocaine is metabolised to 4-hydroxylidocaine by hydroxylation in rats. On the other hand, lidocaine is metabolised to monoethylglycinexylidide by deethylation in dogs or men. The main reason why these differences occurred is the difference of enzymes between species. There are some particular enzymes in men and dogs, but there may be not the enzymes in rats. When the bunk happens, species differences occur in metabolism.toThe role of pharmacology in drug discoveryPharmacology concerns the study of how dr ugs affect the function of host tissues or struggle infectious organisms. In most cases, drugs bind selectively to target molecules within the body, usually proteins but other macromolecules as well. The main drug targets are receptors, enzymes, ion channels, and transporters. It is generally desirable that a drug should have a high affinity for its target than for other binding sites. One of the main roles of pharmacology in identifying new drugs is drug target identification with using compounds cognise pharmacological properties to identify new target mechanisms, and identifying new receptors, ion channels, transporters, and enzymes. Receptors are protein molecules in or on cells that act as recognition sites for endogenous ligands such as neurotransmitters, hormones, inflammatory mediators. Many drugs used in medicine make use of these receptors. The effect of a drug may produce the same responses to an endogenous ligand or prevent the action of an endogenous ligand. A drug t hat binds to a receptor and activates the cells response is termed an agonist. A drug that reduces or inhibits the action of an agonist is termed an enemy. Some drugs produce the maximum response that the tissue can give. These are termed full agonists. Other drugs may not give the maximum tissue response in any concentration, which is called partial agonists. A drug shifts the equilibrium in favour of the non active form, so decrease understate activity. Such drugs are referred to as inverse agonists. An antagonist is defined as a drug that reduces the action of an agonist. There are three main antagonism mechanisms, which are competitive antagonism, irreversible antagonism, and non-competitive antagonism. A competitive antagonist binds to the receptor and prevents the binding of an agonist. If the antagonist binds reversibly, then the effect of the antagonist can be overcome by raising the concentration of the agonist so that it competes more effectively for the binding sites. In irreversible antagonism, the antagonist binds irreversibly, reducing the number of receptors available for binding. In non-competitive antagonism, the antagonist does not block the receptor itself but blocks the signal transduction process initiated by receptor activation. Enzymes catalyse a chemical reaction, so convert substrates to products. In most cases, enzymes are proteins, and their targets are intracellular. Ion channels are fundamental membrane proteins, and convey ions across cell membranes. There are three main types of ion channel, which are voltage-gated channels, ligand-gated channels, and G-protein regulate channels. Voltage-gated channels are closely involved in ion gradients, and make the tissues excitable. Ligand-gated channels be of a number of transmembrane subunits. The channel governs fast cell to cell communication. G-protein regulated channels modulate the excitability of excitable tissue. Transporters are proteins which can pass around a cell membrane without modifying it, and transport substances. Drugs can modify this action by blocking a binding site, or acting as a false substance, and being transported into a cell.The brilliance of verbal nerve and oral bioavailability unwritten administration is the most convenient and acceptable route, because of the brilliance from the point of view of patients. It is much easier for patients to take medicine orally than taking by other routes. The important factors of oral drugs are potency, selectivity, rapid dissolution, and rapid transfer across the membranes of the gastrointestinal tract, low clearance, absence of dose breakaway and time independent in pharmacokinetics, and no fundamental interaction with other drugs.Oral bioavailability is the proportion of the orally administered dose that reaches the systemic circulation. Incomplete release from the dosage form, destruction within the gut, poor absorption and first-pass elimination are important causes of low bioavailability . There are two main factors controlling oral absorption, which are physical barriers and biological barrier. Physical barrier interprets solubility, ionisation, lipophilicity, drug formulation, and interaction with other substances. As I discussed above, solubility, lipophilicity, and ionisation are closely cerebrate to absorption. Drugs must dissolve to establish a concentration gradient for absorption, the rate and extent of absorption depending on the pharmaceutical formulation. Rapid absorption of a drug requires its disintegration into small particles. In general, food will vague absorption by reducing the drugs concentration. On the other hand, biological barriers comprise efflux, transporters, and metabolism. Efflux is a biological reaction which forces out unnecessary substances. The reaction prevents drugs from entering inside of a cell. Metabolism is one of the biological barriers, because of different enzymes which are mainly CYP 450. Transporters are one of biologica l barriers, but the role of transporters preventing drugs from entering an interior cell is not clear now.The example of drugsHistamine is a mediator in both acute inflammation and the immediate hypersensitivity response. There are two main types of histamine receptor which are H1 and H2 receptors. Antihistamine drugs can target each receptor type. The main physiological aspects of the gastrointestinal tract are gastric deadly secretion. The excess of gastric acid secretion cause peptic ulcers. In peptic ulcer, the balance between gastric acid secretion and mucosal-protective mechanisms is altered. The main approach to peptic ulcer is drugs used to reduce acid secretion. The H2 receptor antagonists, Cimetizine, Ranitizine, reduce gastric acid secretion in response to histamine, gastrin, and food. The proton bosom is responsible for the secretion of gastric acid into the stomach. Therefore, the proton pump inhibitors show the effect of reduction in the secretion of gastric acid.ant ibacterial drugs are compounds used to treat bacterial infections. There are some targets for antibacterial drugs, such as cell wall, nucleotide mechanism, and protein synthesis. One of the important targets is cell wall which provides support for the membrane. Its main constituent is peptidoglycan which is an excellent target for drugs. Drugs affecting peptidoglycan synthesis include penicillins and penicillin G.ConclusionI learned the basis of drug discovery and development through these lectures, and I found the importance of medicinal chemistry, such as pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. It is essential to understand medicinal chemistry for discovering and developing novel and ideal drugs. At the same time, I feel we should consider discovering and developing drugs from the point of view of patients as well.

CSR For Nestle And MTN

CSR For cuddle And MTNsnuggle (a high-income guild) and MTN (a low-income comp whatsoever) reach divers(prenominal) approaches regarding CSR. This inform impart describe and evaluate those approaches. entreeThis is a drawing description of sever each(prenominal)y company highlighting just ab step forward facts concerning their suppuration.Section angiotensin-converting enzymeIdentifies the different types of stakeholders that the company should cope man office its local/global activities.Using the Stakeholder Saliency Model, al megabuckss those stakeholders for twain companies, taking into n hotshot devil things who has the most/least bureau in steering the companys decisions and whether or non this stakeholder is by-li request in CSR initiatives.Two differences have been identified nestle prototypally, host politicss in ontogenesis countries atomic number 18 desperate Stakeholders and do non give tongue to much interest in CSR secondly, social governmen ts, NGOs and the media ar wicked Stakeholders and in opt of CSR.MTN firstly, host governments in developing countries atomic number 18 overabundant and show interest in CSR secondly, social nerves much(prenominal) as NGOs and the media be Demanding and in favour of CSR.The reasons bathroom this includeHost government in developing countries corrupt government whitethorn find the high-income corporation ( near) an tempt opportunity to seize inappropriate MTN. Moreover, MTN which originated in a developing coun essay, has a great deal of take care with such governments.Social Organization MTN does not have a negative take up impact on peoples lives, un give care cling to. Also MTN is not recognized globally while draw near is since MTN operates scarcely in developing countries while Nestle operates globally.Section twoIn this section the report answers the by-line whether CSR initiatives adopted by both companies plus/ decrementd over quantify, and too who was b ehind the changes and why they occurred.It was found that both companies have increased their CSR initiatives specially in the globalization era for Nestle, and specially since the 1970s as galore(postnominal) social organizations emerged and FDI occurred in that period.Section common chordThe report shows how authors divide the stakeholders perspective in different ways few classify them according to the local economic military position differents in a developing countrys context separates classify the social and environmental issues depending on regions.A Ponte et al typology using four approaches (engaged/disengaged, proximate/upstage) is applied to the above classifications.An analysis was made with the following resultsThere are many perspectives which support CSR initiatives and cope that those initiatives are dear(p) for argument, especially the engaged approaches, and they support their argument with inference. They are also good for guild whether the approach es are engaged or disengaged.At the other end of the spectrum, thither are many who do not agree with the benefits brought by CSR initiatives and believe it is grownup for transmission line and consumptionless for purchase order.II. cosmosThe purpose of this report is to analyse, compare and contrast the socially responsible approach of two multi state of matteral companies (Nestle and MTN). This entrust be approached in the following frame firstly, a brief description for each company depart be provided secondly, the report will allocate the stakeholders using the stakeholder saliency amaze for each company showing the similarities and differences. This will be followed by a brief description regarding the changes of CSR approach for both companies and the reasons for these changes. The third section includes a deprecative analysis of both approaches using Ponte et al typology and two distinguish heappoints. Finally, a conclusion sums up the findings showing the future of CSR for both companies. leash. Brief score with round facts regarding CSR,Nestle1,It was in the 1860s when a p damageacist Henri Nestle develop a food formula for those infants who experienced problems in breastfeeding. This welcome intromission from Nestle is now sold all over the being (Nestle History, 2009). some(prenominal) facts about the company include1905-to date Healthy growth in general with some periods of struggle with a lot of mergers and acquisitions, one of the most important being with Movenpick Ice Cream.1970s-1980s Heavy attacks from social organizations and individuals for the unethical merchandise activities encouraging mothers in the developing dry land to use its products instead of breastfeeding. (Douglas,1986)1998 Nestl corporeal Business Principles was produced and updated to include the principles of the UN Secretary Generals Global Compact Labour Standard, pitying in effect(p)s, the Environment (Nestle report, 2001)Cr take the Shared Value sch eme for a healthier world in the 21st century. (CSV mission, 2009)MTN Group2,Founded in 1994, MTN Group is a telecommunication company it services in 21 countries across Africa and the Middle East. (MTN new(a)spaper publisher 1 and 2, 2009).2007 MTN was the crush tax imparter for the year ending 2005/2006 in many African countries.(MTN History, 2007)2007 Established the Corporate Social Responsibility Foundation. .(MTN History, 2007)2009 fit to management consulting firm Oliver Waymans annual State of the Industry report, MTN achieved the fourth part among the top 60 global performers in terms of its shareholder achievement index (SPI) at the end of 2008 with total revenue of 102,526 one million million million rand3, (MTN distinguish 1and 2, 2009 ).IV. Section oneCorporate social righteousness CSR is the lading by the company to behave ethically with its stakeholders and to fulfil all obligations of minimizing any harm and maximizing the benefits for society, humanity an d the environment and that includes commitments by companies to contri unaccompaniede to social development and enhance the standard of peoples lives4.Stake holder Identification According to many authors Mercier (1999), Freeman (1984), Donaldson and Preston (1995), stakeholders are usually all those groups or individuals that whitethorn feign or be affected by the organizations daily attaining process, and also include all those who could have shares or interests in the same organization (Cited in Perqueux, 2004.P6).From the definition given above it could be interpreted that organizations should classify their stakeholders interests and power in a way that brings satisfaction because they will be assessed and evaluated by them in the future, and that what Rossouw and Sison (2006, p41) argued for when they described the corporations as a nation state is that they must be honest with its citizens otherwise they will be overthrown.From the two definitions mentioned above and by us ing the Stakeholder Saliency Model, this report will now show two things at the same time. The first is to show who stakeholder has the most or least effect in mapping the business activities, and second to what extent this allocated stakeholder is CSR driver for both companies showing the similarities and differences. An explanation for these will be provided.NestlePowerDiscretionary Stakeholder other inter-national institutions e.g. IMF, World swan preponderating Stakeholder.Dangerous StakeholderGovernments in developing countries, social organizations, NGOs, media.Demanding Stakeholder people authoritative StakeholderMain ShareholdersDormant StakeholderShareholders (Minority interest)Depending Stakeholder legitimacyUrgencyMTNPowerDiscretionary Stakeholder other Inter-national Institutions such as IMF, World BankDominant StakeholderGovernment in developing countriesDormant StakeholderShareholders (Minority interest)Demanding StakeholderSocial organizations, NGOs, media.Dangerous StakeholderDefinitive StakeholderMain ShareholdersDepending StakeholderLegitimacyUrgency.The important similaritiesMain Shareholders (Definitive Stakeholders with fake CSR ) As they interpret the organization with the funds needed to build up capital, thus they have the right to vote, control and change the corporate structure if required, Mantyssari (2005), and that would have a satisfying influence in mapping the companys business activities and other activities connect to CSR.The following showcase shows how Nestles first priority is its shareholders and how Nestle manipulates the CSR approach. This happened when it announced the intention to veer Nestle into the worlds leading wellness organization to promote healthy eating by people through providing functional food instead of its e rattlingday range, spending SFr 2 billion on research and development in 2008. However, many experts point out that there is no substantial evidence that eating functional food makes people h ealthier. Lausanne and Vevey (The Economist, 2009. p39-95) indicate also to the reasons behind that by showing that in America the growth of functional foods surrounded by 2002-2007 was 15.8% a year while ordinary foods was save 2.9% suggesting profit was the main driver nothing else.The same is applicable in MTN regarding definitive shareholders, especially when looking closely at their annual report (2008 p172), showing the piece of share capital, equal to 25%, was owned save by 8 shareholders, so this group of 8 has the majority portion of power to count on the company activities in the way they prefer, which is making profits.Minority interest Shareholders (Dormant Stakeholders with no effects on CSR) they do not have the enough power to steer the company in the responsible direction nether on its policyIMF, World Bank, WTO (Discretionary Stakeholders with a neutral position regarding CSR) through their jurisprudence and requirements and conditionality they open new routes for investing. However, that does not oblige the MNCs to invest nor to participate in social responsibility initiatives.The main differencesHost governments in developing countries are Dangerous Stakeholders and do not show too much interest in CSR for Nestle, while they are Dominant and show interest in CSR for MTN)Jones (2005, p9) pointed out that host governments use a lot of subsidies to pluck foreign organizations, such as low custom tariffs or shrive capital movement in order to overcome difficulties (poverty, diseases, death)Applying this to the selected companiesNestle this type of stakeholder should be allocated under Dangerous for many reasons. Nestle lacks experience in dealing with developing governments policies. Another reason is that kleptocratic government may find the high-income corporation (Nestle) an enticing opportunity to seize. For example the BBC announced in December 2002 that Nestle was trying to persuade the Ethiopian government to pay USD 6 million in stead of 1.5 million as compensation for nationalizing one of its subsidiaries in Ethiopia. This example shows how the Ethiopian government took possession of Nestls subsidiary without any previous(prenominal) notice or consultation.MTN originally from SA, and all of its investments are located in Africa and the ME (developing countries). It has a great deal of experience with such governments so do not need to project it under Dangerous stakeholders unlike Nestle. But even though MTN has put governments under the Dominant category MTN has to comply with the King codes in sec Africa5which include very strict rules regarding CSR initiatives in order be listed in JSE securities exchange and to be accepted by the government and society. (Institute of Directors in South Africa, 2009)Social organizations, NGOs, Media are Dangerous Stakeholders and in favour of CSR for Nestle, while Demanding and in favour of CSR for MTNNestle Because of the nature of the business of Nestle (covering world-wide and working in the field of nutrition), it may be found that a lot of social organizations a coherent with the media ever so attack it aggressively, especially if they discover the unethical approach of its social responsibility, force it to make much and more effort in the field of CSR. For example the General Synod of the church of England called for a ban on Nestle and asked Church commissioners to disinvest their GBP 1.1 million in it. Moreover in 1974 the British kind-heartedness War on Want released a leaflet The Baby slayer criticising Nestle for the bad effects of its marketing strategies in Africa. (Kotler et al. 2009)MTN However, there are many examples showing MTN has a good reputation among those organizations who evaluate its efforts to table service the people and bring prosperity to society. For example, South Africa media (South Africa info, 2008) praised MTN when it declared its intention, along with other operators, to establish a fibre network a cross the Sub Saharan centres in an effort to meet the soaring unavoidably of their subscribers and connect the African continent with the rest of the world. The reason for this approval is because MTN does not have a negative direct impact on peoples lives, unlike Nestle. Also MTN is not recognized globally as Nestle is since it operates only in developing countries.V. Section twoThis report will now answer the following inquire which way is the CSR changing and what are the main causes for this?In 1869 Henri Nestle said During the first few months, the mothers milk will always be the most natural nutriment, put promoted Nestle products as a substitute. However, in 2007 Nestle stated that Nothing is a substitute for or kindred or superior to breast milk Kotler et al. (2009). These two statements raise two questions the first one is Did Nestle admit the guiltiness about its previous promotion? secondly, If yes, then who was behind it?Actually to answer these questions, we have t o consider that through Nestle growth, a lot of pressure and outside forces have pushed the company to change its attitude towards satisfying its stakeholders and make responsible efforts sort of than only profit. Blowfield and Murray (2008, p41-66) claim that the relationship amid business and society changed through three eras the industrial revolution, the mid-twentieth-century welfare state and globalization. Furthermore, through these eras there was a shift in corporate social responsibility, from a metaphysical concerned with normative behaviour of the organization, to CSR as management practice, especially in the 1970s. Ackerman and Bauers (1976 cited in Blowfield et al, 2008) argue also that what a company can do to respond to social expectation rather than theoretical ideas of what it should do is what matters. This is reflected in public self-assurance over the years (see Appendix 1) which suggests public confidence began to increase in the late 1970s with a slight dec rease in 1991. (Source Frederick 2006)In relation to the two companies in this study, it may be that Nestle actually took into consideration social responsibility after the pugnacious boycott in the 1970s when it learnt a lot from that lesson and started to increase its commitment to society and allocated social organizations and media as dangerous stakeholders. MTN is a relatively new company established only in the 1990s, which could be viewed as the globalization era so has a high standard of CSR knowledge (King I, II, III code). Thus, it could be concluded that there was an increase in CSR initiatives owing to greater awareness among stakeholders, especially over the last three decades, and that increase was related directly to globalization and its characteristics such as free trade, rises in FDI in developing countries, soaring demands of the media and the NGOs.VI. Section ThreeThis section will be divided into three partsAnalysis of the different stakeholders perspective app roaches,Depending on the outcome of the first part, the report will use Ponte et al typology to allocate the approach of both companies.A further analysis of these approaches will be conducted using two contrasting viewpoints.Many authors classify the stakeholders perspective in different ways. Some classify them according to the local economic situation such as Cannon (1994) by giving five types of societies which need different reactions from the business to help the economic system out of the crisis the high-stress environment (suffering from long time economic downturn), structurally disadvantaged areas (business in remote areas), the crisis zone, the transitional zone (change of the importance of pains in same area), and the powerhouse industry that used to drive the main local growth and now lining high competition from others.Other authors such as Hamann et al (2005) research the stakeholders perspective in a developing countrys context when they pointed out some realitie s to be considered in achieving a successful CSR in South Africa first, a long history of poverty and inequality second, the need for effective CSR to stamp out the bad image of exploitation and racism created by companies over a long period in those countries third, the suppression of black economic potency which mostly comes from corruption fourth, the need to enhance social settings such as human rights and democracy.Others classify the social and environmental issues depending on the regions, showing the different CSR requirements among countries and they emphasise thateach region needs its own CSR initiatives. For example, the USA needs to address renewed calls for nu percipient power and to deal with air pollution, while some African countries need more concentration in meliorate the infrastructure and solving the conflicts between tribes and governments (PWC, 2006 Ethical Corporation, 2006 cited in Blowfield Murray,2008) (see appendix 2 for more details).Using the above m entioned methods, now Ponte et al typology can be used to allocate initiative approaches used by Nestle and MTN partnership intermeshed CSR activities the factory and farmer scheme in China which has direct impact on company operations since it eliminates the suppliers and at the same time gives the farmers technical support. (Nestle China, 2009) Disengaged CSR initiatives Nestle Nigeria along with the Red Cross started an initiative, an educational course of instruction in 2003 to increase the awareness of HIV among people in Nigeria (Nestle Nigeria, 2009) removed CSR activities the factory and farmer example in China, because the farmers are not one of Nestls workforces they are a separate entity and might be paid low prices for their milk supply. (Nestle China, 2009) Proximate CSR activities Nestle creates job opportunities. It has now more than 265,000 employees worldwide from 100 different countries. (Nestle, 2009) Engaged and Proximate the EcoShape bottle produced by Ne stle North America in 2007. This example could be regarded as an engaged activity since it cut backs the bad effects on the environment (will reduce the CO2 emission by 356,000 tons within three years) and at the same time it is proximate because it is closely related to the company operations (since it impacts on the environment in the same location as its operations). (Nestle America, 2009)-Engaged CSR activities the environmental Management System is one of MTNs policies to reduce the production waste by recycling and encouraging the employees to act socially responsible. (MTN Environmental Policy, 2009) Disengaged CSR initiatives Arts and back up awareness educational program for communities, conducted by the MTN foundation and regarded as a totally disengaged scheme carried out by MTN. (MTN SA foundation, 2009) Distant CSR activities No far-flung CSR initiatives found.-Proximate CSR activities the Arts and Aids awareness educational program could be regarded as a proximate C SR scheme since MTN originally operated in Africa and the Middle East. (MTN SA foundation, 2009) Engaged and Proximate the 21 days of Yello care started in 2007. This scheme of 21 days gives the opportunity for MTNs employees to directly engage with the CSR initiatives programme with a dough as a reward at the end of this scheme for the best team. One team was rewarded for building a small pedestrian bridge. (MTN Yello, 2009)Now, the report will analyse the Ponte et al typology mentioned above showing two contrasting viewpointsIn favour of CSRGood for business when (Engaged whether Proximate or Distant) doorman and Kramer (2006, p83) indicate that working in a healthy society will keep the company healthy (health care for the workforce) and also supply it with a matched advantage (efficient use of resources water, land) and all of these will be achieved by Integrating Business and Society through CSR activities. Other authors praise the role of CSR in marketing and this could be applied in delivery a bright image to the company and to some extent increase its sales Hardeep and Sharma (2006). For example, Ogrizek (2002) saidThere are clear and concrete market-driven benefits and competitive advantages for companies, which integrate their business policies with CSR.In respect of the two companies in question there are a lot of initiative approaches for both companies from their websites which all could be regarded as marketing tools and green sheen attempts (the new check off of Nestle Nescafe Green blend).Good for society when (Engaged whether Proximate or Distant) advocators of this model argue that governments in the developing countries on their own cannot meet the change magnitude demands of the society and development requirements and this is actually what Samuel et al (2009.p394) found when they conducted research in Nigeria showing how CSR initiatives being carried out by 22 organizations complement government efforts to build up a stable economy. Furthermore, this perspective is also support by the neo-liberalism theory in which many authors stress that only business and free markets can sustain the individual rights, society and the environment (Burchell, 1996, Barry et al 1996, Peter and Olssen 2002 cited in Zajda, 2009 p15). No one could deny that Nestle creates job opportunities for 265,000 employees worldwide from 100 different countries and also that MTN donated about 1.5 Rand million to buy clothes with the help of the Red Cross in South Africa in response to attacks by foreign nationals in 2008 (MTN SA foundation, 2009). At the economy take aim, The Economist (1999) punctuate the contribution of MTN as a mobile company in bringing the poor and isolated into the global economy.Opposed to CSR evil for business when (Disengaged) advocators for this approach are usually those who argue in favour of shareholder interests and indicate that the main objective of any company is only to maximize the shareholders value and m inimize any kind of expense. That becomes very clear when Lawrence (1999) describes how the company should create a value management system in five steps in order to achieve the shareholder value, neglecting any component related to non-profit activities because it just an expense. Also, as mentioned earlier in this report, Mantyssari (2005) describes the shareholders as the heart of the business who supply it with the funds needed for the daily operations, so managers have to keep them convenient by a high level of yield.Furthermore, some say that CSR is not only waste of money but also it distracts the managers from focusing on their real duties since effective CSR, which is not only a charity cheque, needs special talent and efforts, and that is also emphasized by Porter and Kramer (2006, p91) when they argue that organizational adjustment that matches good CSR initiatives is what matters more than kind intentions.Useless for society and development (Criticizing all Ponte et al approaches) many protestors criticise the effects caused by MNCs activities all over the world since their negative effects outweigh their CSR initiatives. They think whatever the companies do for the societies is only a green sheen. For instance, Nestle is proud of itself, saying it always provides work opportunities for people, indicated that 97% of their workforces are distributed all over the world The Economist (1997.p153). However, for Corpwatch (2005) the fair play is it exploits the workers in an awful manner and Corpwatch complained that 286,000 children work as slaves in the os Coasts cocoa farms (90 hours a week with very low wages) and point out that Nestle is the third largest importer of cocoa from the Ivory Coast. Also it could be argued from bad for business angle as there is general agreement that if CSR is not focused and organized it will often come to nothing or may sometimes have harmful results.VII. ConclusionFrom this report, a lot of findings can be drawn b y analysing the corporate social responsibility approaches for Nestle and MTN. This report started by showing the importance of the different types of stakeholders that try to steer the companys activities in the way they desire, whether in a business or CSR approach. Using the Stakeholders Saliency Model these stakeholders have been allocated and two major differences were found. The first one is, Governments in developing countries where Nestle operate should be put under Dangerous stakeholder since they lack experience in dealing with such governments and the high-income corporation could also be seen an enticing opportunity to be seized. However, MTN (a low-income company) is the glacial case since it originated in such an environment. The other main difference between them is the danger of social organizations for Nestle such as NGOs and the media since it works globally and works in the field of nutrition, hiring people from poor countries, so may be targeted by such institut ions. In contrast, MTN does not have a direct impact on peoples lives and is not recognized globally like Nestle since it operates only in developing countries.The report then analysed and evaluated the CSR approaches for both companies using Ponte et al typology to allocate them in four dimensions, engaged/disengaged, distant/proximate. It was found Nestle and MTN use all of them except for MTN which did not use distant CSR initiatives. The report attempted to answer the question which stakeholders were satisfied and which were not, no matter what type of approach was adopted, by contrasting two points of view (with and against CSR) and arguing them in four different aspects. Through the analysis of the aspect Useless for society, it was found some organizations and institutions are still not satisfied by the CSR initiatives and need deeper indicators, going beyond the basics and taking into neb the real influences on the surroundings. Regarding the future of CSR, some authors suc h as Murray and Blowfield (2008, p365-369) emphasised that the context analysis such as the mega trends (climate change, demographic change, poverty) will be no less important than simply examining the CSR approaches taken by the company.

Two Theories Of Youth Crime Criminology Essay

Two Theories Of Youth Crime Criminology EssayThis attempt go out discuss three theories, the differential gear coefficient linkup hypothesis, the brandling speculation and the rule choice guess. The theories result discussed and how they can explain disgust will withal be discussed, and then a comparison of the theories will be effrontery in order to identify their strengths and weaknesses in explaining youth abhorrence. Theories within criminology attempt to explain why and how abhorrence occurs. This is done with examining various facts that ar related to the somebodys distressing behaviour and the crime they commit. There atomic number 18 a wide range of theories which can be apply to explain the causes of crime and aberrant behaviour from youths.The low gear possible action is the differential association possibleness by Edwin Sutherland (1947). He developed the differential association possibleness in order to explain how youths remove in acts of woe ful behaviour. This guess lays immoral behaviour as look outt behaviour which is acquired done companionable contact with separate(a) man-to-mans (Hopkins Burke, 2009104). This theory explains how privates learn how to engage in bend behaviour through their attitudes, drive and motive behind the criminal act. An idiosyncraticist is most probable to be involved in criminal behaviour if they spend numerous follow of time with a person who has a criminal minimize and believes that breaking the law is acceptable. Further more Sutherland (1974) identifies nine main factors that can be used to explain why a person engages in criminal behaviour. This essay will now explain the nine factors in detail.The first factor that Sutherland believes is the reason as to why an item-by-item engages in criminal behaviour is because the behaviour is learned. Hopkins Burke (2009) Believes that the actions of an person ar functiond by the mint they classify with. It is believed that because the item-by-item main association is with their family, as that is whom they endure grownup up and live with, so therefore the private kind determine and norms be formulated from them. Sutherland also verbalize that learned behaviour is non invented, nor is it inherited The skills and techniques required for an individual to engage criminal activity ar non automatic totallyy obtained from birth, or through association with criminals, or else they argon acquired through a process of information (Hopkins Burke, 2009106).The molybdenum linguistic rule refutes the bringing close together that criminal behaviour is learned through the individual witnessing degenerate or criminal behaviour. Instead this believes that criminality is learned behaviour though interaction with others in the process of communication. Children be accustomed to the norms of alliance at a very young age, they are taught the roles of both a concourse well-nigh them. They also learn th ese roles by observing the male or female characteristics relating to the specific gender. For example an individual may learn about abnormal behaviour through communicating with the person who is committing the abnormal behaviour. The third normal states that individuals commit crime because they are enticed by the behaviour of intimate nation such as family members and close friends. Methods of communication from television and or media are less effective in influencing the individual (Hopkins Burke, 2009106).The fourth factor from Sutherlands theory is that learning criminal behaviour involves learning specific techniques, drives, motives and rationalization. Having a primordial group of people around does non necessarily mean that the individual will engage in crime, just now it does mean that they have the resources into the criminal rationale. For example existence around a person who is has been convicted of sexual offence, may give the individual knowledge into h ow to engage in the same crime, notwithstanding the individual may choose not to engage in that crime because they know from their affectionateization of societal norms that a sexual offence is out of the question (Hopkins Burke, 2009106). The fifth factor can be noticed when considering cultures form the fall in Kingdom and the United States. Both countries have various cultures within them and for each one culture has different perceptions as to what is favourable and discriminatory within society and this can cause a cultural conflict. This principle believes that the specific delegacy of motives and drives is learned from definitions of legal codes such as favourable and unfavourable. (Newburn, 2007 194)The most serious principle within the differential association theory is the sixth principle, which is when individuals associate themselves with people that engage in criminal behaviour and believe it is acceptable. This principles states that an individual becomes delin quent only when definitions favourable to violation of law exceed definitions unfavourable to violation of law (Newburn, 2007 194).The seventh principle stares that differential associations may interpolate in frequence, duration priority and bulk. The eighth principle believes that the process of learning criminal behaviour by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any(prenominal) other learning (Newburn, 2007 194).The lowest principle states that while criminal behaviour is an expression of necessarily and values, it is not explained by those indispensabilitys and values since non criminal behaviour is an expression of the same ingests and values. For example if two individuals where both motivated by a need to gain money and respect, but one person engage in criminal behaviour in order to get the money and respect. Whereas the other person engaged in conforming behaviour. So therefore the need for money and re spect cannot be used as an account for an individual to commit crime (Newburn, 2009 194).The second theory that will be discussed is trailling theory. This theory claims that divagation and conformity does not emerge from the individuals actions, but rather from how others respond to the actions. Marcionis and Plummer (2005) state that labelling theory highlights cordial receipt to crime and deviation. The main academics in this theory were Becker and Lemert. Lemert (1951) first established the view of aberrant, and later developed by Becker (1963). Labelling theory has become a dominant theory in the definition of aberrance. This theory is realised by the assumption that deviant behaviour is solely establish on the violation of norms within society, but also by any behaviour which is defined as labelled or deviant. Deviance is not viewed as the act that the individual engages in, instead it is based on the response other individuals give to the act. Becker (1963) believed that distortion is created through social groups because they make rules which create diversion, and then they apply those rules to particular individuals labelling them as deviant. He also stated that deviance is not the act that the individual commits, but the consequences of the application of others by rules and sanctions to an offender. And the deviant one is whom the label has successfully been applied to.Deviance has been luxurious into primary and alternate deviance by Lemert (1951). Lemert described primary deviance as diminutive reactions from others that have little effect on an individuals self-concept and secondary deviance is described as people pushing the deviant individual out of the social circle, which can therefore cause the individual to seek the company of people who condone deviant behaviour. He further argued that instead of viewing crime as a leading to agree, it may be more productive to view crime as something with control agencies grammatical constr uctiond. supplementary deviance leads Goffman (1963) to define deviant career. Goffman (1963) stated that people who acquire a stigma which is a powerful ostracize label which changes a persons self-concept and social identity. The individuals is laCriminal prosecution is one style in which the individual is labelled in a blackball, rather than in a exacting way. It is believed that stigmatizing people can often lead to retrospective labelling, which is the understanding of an individuals gone with the present deviance. Lement believes that retrospective labelling distorts an individuals life in a prejudicial way guided by stigma and this is an unfair thing to do. Stigmatizing young people may actually lead them into a deviant career (Hopkins Burke, 2008172)Howard Becker (1963) claimed that social groups create deviance by labelling individuals as outsiders. Through an application of irreverence constitute deviance. Furthermore labelling theorys approach to deviance mainly co ncentrates on the social reaction to a deviant act committed by an individual as well as the interaction process that leads up to the labelling. This theory therefor suggests that too much attention has been given to criminals by academics because criminology views criminals as types of people and also to the insufficient attention to the collection of social control responses. This therefore means that the police, law, media and public association help shape crime. This is support by the conflict theory which shows how deviance reflects on inequalities and power. This approach may also signify that the cause of crime may be tie in to inequalities of race, class and gender. The conflict theory links deviance to the power of norms and the resource of the rich and powerful, which the law society supports.The notion of secondary deviance, stigma and deviant career all demonstrate how individuals can include the label of deviance into a lasting self-concept. Becker (1963) believes tha t labelling is a practical act that has made politicians cognisant of which rules to enforce and what behaviour they should regard as deviant. The effects upon an individual being publically labelled deviant have been examined by Becker (1963) he believes that a label is an unbiased onion, which contains an evaluation of the individual to whom it is applied. The labelling theory will be a master label in term of captivating all over all other statuses the individuals are under. For example if an individual is labelled as a rapist it will be difficult for the individual to drop these labels and see themselves in positive roles such a parent, friend, worker and neighbour. other people will view that individual and respond to them according to the label also they will assume that the individual has the disallow characteristics associated with the label. Eventually the individual will view themselves in that label because their self-concept is derived from the responses of others. T his can then affirm a self-fulfilling prophecy where the deviant becomes the controlling one.The third theory that will be discussed is the unfold theory. Unlike the differential association and labelling, this theory believes that social structures within society can influence individuals to commit crimes. Merton (1938) suggests that there are two types of important elements of social structure these elements are the cultural goals, the hunt of the goals and interests. The third theory that will be discussed is the strain theory. Unlike the differential association and labelling, this theory believes that social structures within society can influence individuals to commit crimes. Merton (1938) suggests that there are two types of important elements of social structure these elements are the cultural goals, the function of the goals and interests. Merton (1938) explains the occurrence of crime and deviance victimization five responses to strain. The first path is Conformity this path suggests that individuals could alleviate the strain by changing their cultural goals and by withdrawing allegiance to the institutionalised means. The second path is Retreatism Merton considered this path to be the least common adaption. Retreats are those who hold outed cultural goals and its institutionalised means. Individuals who normally take this path are considered not to be part of society (Hopkins Burke, 2008 120). The third path is the Ritualism, these individuals are not particularly successful in attaining their conventional goal, but they emphasise on the means that obscure their judgements on the desirability of appreciating the goals. The fourth path is groundwork this path suggests that when an individual finds that an obstacle inhibits their ability to achieve the cultural goals, the individuals will use other means rather than institutional means (Hopkins Burke, 2008 121). The final path is Rebellion, Merton believes rebellious people are those who simply reject but also which to change the existing social system and its goals. Rebels reject socially approved means and the goals of their society. (Hopkins Burke, 2008122).Strain theory can cause negative sentiments from the outside environment. These feelings include fear, defeat and despair the most applicable feeling that can occur is anger. Agnew (1992) emphasised that when they become angry, individuals tend to blame their negative relationships and circumstances on others (Agnew, 1992 59). An individual is incited with anger, low inhibitions and they begin to create a desire for revenge (Agnew, 1992 60). Agnew stated that individuals who are subjected to repetitive strain are more likely to engage in delinquent and criminal acts, this is callable to the fact that the individual becomes aggressive because they are unable to cope and the negative strain may become too much for them (Agnew, 1992 61).Overall all three theories give a approximate explanation of youth crime. The li keness between these theories is they all aim to give a detailed explanation as to why individuals engage in crime and deviance. derivative association theory believes that all behaviour is learned and so therefore deviant behaviour is also learned. This theory focuses on key variables such as the age of the learner, the intensity of contact with the deviant person whom they learn from and the amount of good and bad social contacts they have in their lives. Whereas the labelling theory explains deviance as a social process where individuals are able to define others as deviant. This theory emphasises on the fact that deviance is relative and the individual only becomes deviant when they are labelled. Alongside this strain theory explains deviance as the outcome of social strains within the way society is structured. non all theories give a good explanation for tackling youth crime, the labelling theory states that the label is the route of criminal behaviour this is not a good expl anation because there is a reason an individual becomes a burglar, not because they have been labelled as one. The individual is aware that their actions are deviant and that they are breaking the law. Some academics believe that there should be more research into the labelling theory and why individuals engage in criminal behaviour. The left hand realist have stated that the idea of avoiding labelling in order to avoid deviance is unrealistic. Also Aker (1994) criticised the labelling theory for claiming that deviants are normal individuals who have been labelled. However the labelling theory fails to explain why some individuals are labelled and some are not. Another criticism of the labelling theory is that it is possible to reject the label. Becker (1963) claimed that once an individual is labelled and accepts the deviant behaviour, all their other qualities become irrelevant and the label becomes their master status. However there are examples that show it is possible to rejec t the label. This example comes from Reiss (1961) contemplate on young male prostitutes. Although the males engage in homosexual behaviour they regard this behaviour as work and allay maintain their straight image despite working as prostitutes. This study shows that the labelling theory is open to negotiation as some individuals reject the label.Differential association theory and the strain theory can be used to tackle youth crime. The differential association accepts that criminal behaviour is unmixed across all social classes, and that criminal attitudes and behaviour is learned through interaction with influential groups. In order to tackle youth crime the governing body will need to introduce organizations that aim at development positive role models to encourage young individuals who do not have positive role models in their lives. By doing so individuals can learn positive behaviour instead of deviant behaviour from people who engage in unacceptable behaviour. The diffe rential theory has been criticised in Glueck (1956) article on Theory and fact in Criminology. Glueck stated that it is difficult to measure the duration, priority, frequency and intensity of an individuals association, so therefore this makes it impossible to predict and measure how the differential associations result in the learning of criminal behaviour. It could be argued that the individual did not learn criminal behaviour from an intimate social group, because the duration, frequency, priority and intensity was not sufficient. Glueck (1956) argued that if there is no sufficiency then the theory is not falsifiable which therefore males it defective.Finally the strain theory can be used to tackle youth crime because it explains the strains with society that may influence individuals to engage in criminal activity. This theory can enable the government to improve the social structure within society, for example providing more trade and better education opportunities. Strain the ory has been criticised by Cohen (1955) who stated that the theory can be accounted for some but not all deviant behaviour. Cohen also criticised Mertons theory of strain for being too individualistic in describing the adaptations to strain.